Glossary
A
Albumen firmness: Quality description of the albumen
(egg white) of an egg. Albumen is judged on the basis of clarity and firmness
or thickness. A clear albumen is defined as being free from discolorations or
from any foreign bodies.
Animal Model: Mathematical approach to determine the genetic and environmental factors which may affect animal performances. This system allows an accurate prediction of the breeding values of future reproducers. The Animal Model simultaneously evaluates dams (♀) and sires (♂) using all their ancestor relationships. This means that every animal known in a given pedigree is used to evaluate both the dam and sire. This increases the accuracy of evaluation and should be a major step in breeder acceptance of the new evaluation system.
Artificial fertilisation: The bringing together of semen and eggs under laboratory conditions.
Artificial insemination: Collecting semen from a male and bringing this into the genital tract of a female. The advantages of AI are 1) genetic improvement: superior animals can be used more often and more efficiently, 2) control of diseases: a) instead of males, their semen is transported b) semen can be tested for several diseases c) no transmission of venereal diseases.
Atresia ani: Hereditary genetic defect: animals are born without anus.
Animal Model: Mathematical approach to determine the genetic and environmental factors which may affect animal performances. This system allows an accurate prediction of the breeding values of future reproducers. The Animal Model simultaneously evaluates dams (♀) and sires (♂) using all their ancestor relationships. This means that every animal known in a given pedigree is used to evaluate both the dam and sire. This increases the accuracy of evaluation and should be a major step in breeder acceptance of the new evaluation system.
Artificial fertilisation: The bringing together of semen and eggs under laboratory conditions.
Artificial insemination: Collecting semen from a male and bringing this into the genital tract of a female. The advantages of AI are 1) genetic improvement: superior animals can be used more often and more efficiently, 2) control of diseases: a) instead of males, their semen is transported b) semen can be tested for several diseases c) no transmission of venereal diseases.
Atresia ani: Hereditary genetic defect: animals are born without anus.
B
Balanced breeding: Breeding for a combination of characteristics, concerning animal biology, animal health, efficiency, environment, animal welfare and economy.
Bovine Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency (BLAD): is a hereditary genetic disease (detected in the Holstein breed), an adhesion deficiency of bovine leukocytes to antigens, which shows in calves as not being able to recover after an illness. A DNA-test is available to detect animals that are carriers of the defect allele.
Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP): A statistical method, that gives the estimation of Breeding Values. This is a rating or breeding quality number and is a prediction of the breeding potential of the individual animal and how likely it is that that animal will improve (or not improve) its offspring. BLUP calculations are used to predict the genetic make-up of an animal for all kinds of traits. With BLUP it is possible to track and predict the different inherited traits through complicated mathematical and statistical calculations.
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE): sometimes known as "mad cow" disease, is a prion disease of cattle first identified in 1986. BSE occurs in adult animals in both sexes, typically in four and five year olds. It is a neurological disease involving pronounced changes in mental state, abnormalities of posture and movement and of sensation. The clinical disease usually lasts for several weeks. Only a small proportion of affected cattle show what would be considered typical "mad cow" signs. Possibly, when humans eat meat from an infected animal, they develop a similar disease. Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD) is a rare and fatal neurodegenerative disease of unknown cause.
Breeding organisation (BO): Organisation involved in the breeding of farm animals.
Breeding value: The estimated genetic value of an individual. The part of an individual's genotypic value that is due to independent and therefore transmittable gene effects.
Broiler: A type of chicken bred for meat production.
Bovine Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency (BLAD): is a hereditary genetic disease (detected in the Holstein breed), an adhesion deficiency of bovine leukocytes to antigens, which shows in calves as not being able to recover after an illness. A DNA-test is available to detect animals that are carriers of the defect allele.
Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP): A statistical method, that gives the estimation of Breeding Values. This is a rating or breeding quality number and is a prediction of the breeding potential of the individual animal and how likely it is that that animal will improve (or not improve) its offspring. BLUP calculations are used to predict the genetic make-up of an animal for all kinds of traits. With BLUP it is possible to track and predict the different inherited traits through complicated mathematical and statistical calculations.
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE): sometimes known as "mad cow" disease, is a prion disease of cattle first identified in 1986. BSE occurs in adult animals in both sexes, typically in four and five year olds. It is a neurological disease involving pronounced changes in mental state, abnormalities of posture and movement and of sensation. The clinical disease usually lasts for several weeks. Only a small proportion of affected cattle show what would be considered typical "mad cow" signs. Possibly, when humans eat meat from an infected animal, they develop a similar disease. Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD) is a rare and fatal neurodegenerative disease of unknown cause.
Breeding organisation (BO): Organisation involved in the breeding of farm animals.
Breeding value: The estimated genetic value of an individual. The part of an individual's genotypic value that is due to independent and therefore transmittable gene effects.
Broiler: A type of chicken bred for meat production.
C
Challenge test: Tests designed to identify differences between individuals, families, lines or strain crosses in their ability to cope with diseases or stress factors likely to be encountered in practice. Results from challenge tests are used to select relatives for improved resistance. In case of transmittable diseases, test farms are operated with maximal bio-security.
Cloning (Somatic): Producing offspring with the same genetic information, e.g. embryonic cloning, identical twins.
Complex Vertebral Malformation (CVM): Genetic defect in cattle associated with the disorder range from earlier embryonic death to late term stillborn calves with neck and leg deformities. A DNA-test is available to detect animals that are carrier of the defect allele.
Congenital defects: Defects present at birth.
Cryopreservation: Preservation by means of freezing, e.g. semen, embryos.
Cryptorchism: Hereditary genetic disease (genetic defect) in which testicles are not descended.
Cloning (Somatic): Producing offspring with the same genetic information, e.g. embryonic cloning, identical twins.
Complex Vertebral Malformation (CVM): Genetic defect in cattle associated with the disorder range from earlier embryonic death to late term stillborn calves with neck and leg deformities. A DNA-test is available to detect animals that are carrier of the defect allele.
Congenital defects: Defects present at birth.
Cryopreservation: Preservation by means of freezing, e.g. semen, embryos.
Cryptorchism: Hereditary genetic disease (genetic defect) in which testicles are not descended.
E
Embryo transfer: Recovering embryos from a donor animal and transferring these embryos to a recipient animal.
F
Farm Animal Breeding: Strategies applied by specialized farmers to increase desirable traits selecting the appropriate animals as ancestors of the new generations.
Fry: Young fish at an early stage.
Fry: Young fish at an early stage.
G
Genome wide selection (genomic selection): Use of total breeding values for juvenile animals, predicted from a large number of estimated marker haplotype effects across the whole genome. Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) are used as high density markers in genome wide selection.
Genetic diversity: High variety of alleles of genes within a population.
Genomics: Study of an organism’s genome and the use of the genes (the genes of a cell, or tissue, at the DNA (genotype), mRNA (transcriptome), or protein (proteome) levels). It deals with the systematic use of genome information, associated with other data, to provide answers in biology, medicine and industry. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping efforts, and also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. The major tools and methods related to genomics are bioinformatics, genetic analysis, measurement of gene expression, and determination of gene function. Such identified genes can be called major genes located at Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL). Although the term QTL strictly applies to genes of any effect, in practice it refers only to major genes, as only these will be large enough to be detected and mapped on the genome. Following the pattern of inheritance at such QTL might assist in selection.
Genetic diversity: High variety of alleles of genes within a population.
Genomics: Study of an organism’s genome and the use of the genes (the genes of a cell, or tissue, at the DNA (genotype), mRNA (transcriptome), or protein (proteome) levels). It deals with the systematic use of genome information, associated with other data, to provide answers in biology, medicine and industry. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping efforts, and also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. The major tools and methods related to genomics are bioinformatics, genetic analysis, measurement of gene expression, and determination of gene function. Such identified genes can be called major genes located at Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL). Although the term QTL strictly applies to genes of any effect, in practice it refers only to major genes, as only these will be large enough to be detected and mapped on the genome. Following the pattern of inheritance at such QTL might assist in selection.
H
Haugh Units: A measure of the firmness of albumen in the eggs, correcting albumen height for variable egg weight (layer chicken).
Hermaphrodism: Biological mode of reproduction in which an individual presents alternatively or simultaneously male and female territory in its gonad.
Hermaphrodism: Biological mode of reproduction in which an individual presents alternatively or simultaneously male and female territory in its gonad.
I
IMF: Intramuscular fat or marbling of muscle meat.
Inbreeding: genes that two animals have in common due to common anchestors. Inbreeding can be used to increase genetic variation between families in order to increase response to selection. In commercial breeding programmes, inbreeding is seldom used. Loss of genetic diversity due to inbreeding depends on effective population size and selection intensity.
Interbull: International breeding value estimation in dairy cattle. Interbull is a non-profit organisation, responsible for the standardisation of international genetic evaluations for cattle. In practice this means, that a French farmer may use semen from a South American bull with known breeding value for French conditions, because the international breeding value is comparable globally. There is an extensive international trade of bull semen, globally.
In vitro embryo production: The production of embryos outside an animals’ body using sperm and unfertilised eggs.
Inbreeding: genes that two animals have in common due to common anchestors. Inbreeding can be used to increase genetic variation between families in order to increase response to selection. In commercial breeding programmes, inbreeding is seldom used. Loss of genetic diversity due to inbreeding depends on effective population size and selection intensity.
Interbull: International breeding value estimation in dairy cattle. Interbull is a non-profit organisation, responsible for the standardisation of international genetic evaluations for cattle. In practice this means, that a French farmer may use semen from a South American bull with known breeding value for French conditions, because the international breeding value is comparable globally. There is an extensive international trade of bull semen, globally.
In vitro embryo production: The production of embryos outside an animals’ body using sperm and unfertilised eggs.
L
Layer: A type of chicken bred for efficient egg production.
Leucosis: A malignant disease of the lymphatic system in chickens, caused by a virus.
Leucosis: A malignant disease of the lymphatic system in chickens, caused by a virus.
M
Marker assisted selection (MAS): Selection using genomic markers. The idea behind marker assisted selection is that there may be genes with significant effects that may be targeted specifically in selection. Some traits are controlled by single genes (e.g. hair colour) but most traits of economic importance are quantitative traits that most likely are controlled by a fairly large number of genes. However, some of these genes might have a larger effect.
Mass selection: A form of selection in which only individuals with phenotypic values greater or less than a threshold level are used for breeding. It involves no use of family information. (Compare with pedigree selection).
Mastitis: Mammary gland or udder inflammation caused by various species of bacteria.
MF: Mule Foot is a genetic defect in cattle expressed as fused hoofs. A marker-test is available to detect animals that are carriers of the defect allele.
Monofactorial genetic effects: One gene being responsible for a certain genetic effect, e.g. halothane gene, BLAD, CVM.
Monosex population: production of population of animals of only one phenotypic sex by gamete management (sperm sexing, gynogenesis, sex inversion) or by the control of environmental factors as grading or for example in fish by the application of hot or cold temperature during the sexual differentiation period.
Muscle hypertrophy: Extreme growth of skeletal muscle as in some breeds of cattle, sheep, pigs (double muscling).
Mycoplasma: Pathogenic bacteria causing many diseases of humans, plants and animals. Due to their specific structure they have low sensitivity to the effect of antibiotics. In addition, the majority of mycoplasms are capable of evading the hosts’ immune system; therefore, they can exist in an animal for a long time, often for the entire lifespan.
Mass selection: A form of selection in which only individuals with phenotypic values greater or less than a threshold level are used for breeding. It involves no use of family information. (Compare with pedigree selection).
Mastitis: Mammary gland or udder inflammation caused by various species of bacteria.
MF: Mule Foot is a genetic defect in cattle expressed as fused hoofs. A marker-test is available to detect animals that are carriers of the defect allele.
Monofactorial genetic effects: One gene being responsible for a certain genetic effect, e.g. halothane gene, BLAD, CVM.
Monosex population: production of population of animals of only one phenotypic sex by gamete management (sperm sexing, gynogenesis, sex inversion) or by the control of environmental factors as grading or for example in fish by the application of hot or cold temperature during the sexual differentiation period.
Muscle hypertrophy: Extreme growth of skeletal muscle as in some breeds of cattle, sheep, pigs (double muscling).
Mycoplasma: Pathogenic bacteria causing many diseases of humans, plants and animals. Due to their specific structure they have low sensitivity to the effect of antibiotics. In addition, the majority of mycoplasms are capable of evading the hosts’ immune system; therefore, they can exist in an animal for a long time, often for the entire lifespan.
N
N and P emission: All animals require Nitrogen and Phosphorus in their feed and when they produce manure it will contain some N and P. This is brought into the environment, e.g. grassland or arable land. If the growth period and need of the crop are not consistent with the amount of N (Nitrogen) or P (Phosphorus) brought on the land, N and P may leak into the air, lakes, rivers or ground water. Animals digesting their feed efficiently will pollute the environment less.
O
Oestrus induction: Hormonal stimulation of oestrus at desired moment to ensure a better control and care of reproducers and offspring.
Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis is a disease in which bones become fragile and more likely to break.
Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis is a disease in which bones become fragile and more likely to break.
P
Polledness: An animal born without the potential to grow horns.
R
RYR-1 gene: Also known as halothane gene, is a gene that encodes for the skeletal muscle rynodine receptor in pigs. The locus RYR-1 has two alleles (N: normal, dominant and n: halothane sensitivity, recessive). Pigs with nn or Nn genotype are more susceptible to stressful stimuli. This pork gene causes the pork to be pale, soft, and exudative. A DNA-test has been developed to detect this gene in pigs, so that the pigs carrying this gene are not used for selection. It was the first genome test in farm animal breeding.
S
Salmonella: Salmonella is a bacterium. There is a widespread occurrence in animals, especially in poultry and swine. Environmental sources of the organism include water, soil, insects, factory surfaces, kitchen surfaces, animal faeces, raw meats, raw poultry, and raw seafoods. Humans infected with Salmonella bacteria can get nausea, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, fever, headache or vomit.
Somatic cell count: The somatic cell count (SCC) is commonly used as a measure of milk quality. Somatic cells are simply animal body cells present at low levels in normal milk. High levels of these cells in milk indicate abnormal, reduced-quality milk that is caused by an intramammary bacterial infection (mastitis).
Sperm sexing: Separation of male and female spermatozoa. After the sexing procedure, the semen can be used to produce predominantly male or female offspring.
Splayleg: Sows sometimes sit on their unwary offspring and kill them, and any degree of locomotor impairment in baby pigs increases this risk. Splayleg is a condition in which the hindlimbs and sometimes the forelimbs of a newborn pig temporarily are unable to support the body. If affected pigs are nursed through the period of high risk just after farrowing, they may compensate by enhanced synthesis of muscle proteins and then may grow normally. Slippery floors make the splayleg problem worse. Affected pigs may be helped with a loose coupling between the hindlimbs to prevent the limbs splaying outwards.
Sudden death syndrome: Birds (broiler chickens) which have died suddenly are found on their backs with no other obvious pathology. The cause is probably metabolic. It can be induced by lactic acidosis and about 70% of birds affected are males.
Sustainability: Sustainability in farm animal breeding and reproduction means the extent to which animal breeding and reproduction, as managed by professional organisations, contribute to maintenance and good care of animal genetic resources for present and future generations (www.sefabar.org).
Somatic cell count: The somatic cell count (SCC) is commonly used as a measure of milk quality. Somatic cells are simply animal body cells present at low levels in normal milk. High levels of these cells in milk indicate abnormal, reduced-quality milk that is caused by an intramammary bacterial infection (mastitis).
Sperm sexing: Separation of male and female spermatozoa. After the sexing procedure, the semen can be used to produce predominantly male or female offspring.
Splayleg: Sows sometimes sit on their unwary offspring and kill them, and any degree of locomotor impairment in baby pigs increases this risk. Splayleg is a condition in which the hindlimbs and sometimes the forelimbs of a newborn pig temporarily are unable to support the body. If affected pigs are nursed through the period of high risk just after farrowing, they may compensate by enhanced synthesis of muscle proteins and then may grow normally. Slippery floors make the splayleg problem worse. Affected pigs may be helped with a loose coupling between the hindlimbs to prevent the limbs splaying outwards.
Sudden death syndrome: Birds (broiler chickens) which have died suddenly are found on their backs with no other obvious pathology. The cause is probably metabolic. It can be induced by lactic acidosis and about 70% of birds affected are males.
Sustainability: Sustainability in farm animal breeding and reproduction means the extent to which animal breeding and reproduction, as managed by professional organisations, contribute to maintenance and good care of animal genetic resources for present and future generations (www.sefabar.org).
T
Traceability: Organisation of a production process in such a way that all the steps can be ‘traced’. E.g. when a piece of meat is bought in a supermarket, it should be possible to ‘trace’ back to the farm where it was produced, and to the parents of the animal .
Transgenic: Animals with an artificially modified gene or a gene of another species introduced into their genome, e.g. a gene that can produce milk causing no allergic reactions in humans. Introducing such a different gene into an organism is called ‘genetic modification’: GM
Triploidy: biological mechanism happening in which an individual developed with 3 sets of chromosomes (i.e.: 2 of its mother and 1 from his father) instead of 2 in diploids (1 from each of its parents).
Transgenic: Animals with an artificially modified gene or a gene of another species introduced into their genome, e.g. a gene that can produce milk causing no allergic reactions in humans. Introducing such a different gene into an organism is called ‘genetic modification’: GM
Triploidy: biological mechanism happening in which an individual developed with 3 sets of chromosomes (i.e.: 2 of its mother and 1 from his father) instead of 2 in diploids (1 from each of its parents).
W
Weaning: Accustom animals to do without the mother’s milk (mammals) or leaving prey (fish).
Y
Yolk/albumen ratio: Amount of yolk compared to amount of albumen in an egg. It can be used as a measure of egg quality in layer breeding programmes.
Z
Zoonotic disease: Disease that can be transmitted from animals to humans.
Zoonotic risk: Risk that an animal disease will be transmitted to humans.
Zoonotic risk: Risk that an animal disease will be transmitted to humans.